Bacterial tolerances to metals and antibiotics in metal-contaminated and reference streams. - Related Documents




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768601.0000Bacterial tolerances to metals and antibiotics in metal-contaminated and reference streams. Anthropogenic-derived sources of selection are typically implicated as mechanisms for maintaining antibiotic resistance in the environment. Here we report an additional mechanism for maintaining antibiotic resistance in the environment through bacterial exposure to metals. Using a culture-independent approach, bacteria sampled along a gradient of metal contamination were more tolerant of antibiotics and metals compared to bacteria from a reference site. This evidence supports the hypothesis that metal contamination directly selects for metal tolerant bacteria while co-selecting for antibiotic tolerant bacteria. Additionally, to assess how antibiotic and metal tolerance may be transported through a stream network, we studied antibiotic and metal tolerance patterns over three months in bacteria collected from multiple stream microhabitats including the water column, biofilm, sediment and Corbicula fluminea (Asiatic clam) digestive tracts. Sediment bacteria were the most tolerant to antibiotics and metals, while bacteria from Corbicula were the least tolerant. Differences between microhabitats may be important for identifying reservoirs of resistance and for predicting how these genes are transferred and transported in metal-contaminated streams. Temporal dynamics were not directly correlated to a suite of physicochemical parameters, suggesting that tolerance patterns within microhabitats are linked to a complex interaction of the physicochemical characteristics of the stream.200617064270
747110.9998Impact of fluoroquinolone and heavy metal pollution on antibiotic resistance maintenance in aquatic ecosystems. BACKGROUND: Freshwater pollution with compounds used during anthropogenic activities could be a major driver of antibiotic resistance emergence and dissemination in environmental settings. Fluoroquinolones and heavy metals are two widely used aquatic pollutants that show a high stability in the environment and have well-known effects on antibiotic resistance selection. However, the impact of these compounds on antibiotic resistance maintenance in aquatic ecosystems remains unknown. In this study, we used a microcosm approach to determine the persistence of two fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin) and two heavy metals (copper and zinc) in the Rhône river over 27 days. In addition, we established links between antibiotic and metal pollution, alone and in combination, and the composition of freshwater bacterial communities, the selection of specific members and the selection and maintenance of antibiotic and metal resistance genes (ARGs and MRGs) using a metagenomics approach. RESULTS: Whereas ofloxacin was detected at higher levels in freshwater after 27 days, copper had the strongest influence on bacterial communities and antibiotic and metal resistance gene selection. In addition, heavy metal exposure selected for some ARG-harboring bacteria that contained MRGs. Our research shows a heavy metal-driven transient co-selection for fluoroquinolone resistance in an aquatic ecosystem that could be largely explained by the short-term selection of Pseudomonas subpopulations harboring both fluoroquinolone efflux pumps and copper resistance genes. CONCLUSION: This research highlights the complexity and compound-specificity of dose-response relationships in freshwater ecosystems and provides new insights into the medium-term community structure modifications induced by overall sub-inhibitory levels of antibiotic and heavy metal pollution that may lead to the selection and maintenance of antibiotic resistance in low-impacted ecosystems exposed to multiple pollutants.202540426239
388120.9998Meta-transcriptomics reveals a diverse antibiotic resistance gene pool in avian microbiomes. BACKGROUND: Antibiotic resistance is rendering common bacterial infections untreatable. Wildlife can incorporate and disperse antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment, such as water systems, which in turn serve as reservoirs of resistance genes for human pathogens. Anthropogenic activity may contribute to the spread of bacterial resistance cycling through natural environments, including through the release of human waste, as sewage treatment only partially removes antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, empirical data supporting these effects are currently limited. Here we used bulk RNA-sequencing (meta-transcriptomics) to assess the diversity and expression levels of functionally viable resistance genes in the gut microbiome of birds with aquatic habits in diverse locations. RESULTS: We found antibiotic resistance genes in birds from all localities, from penguins in Antarctica to ducks in a wastewater treatment plant in Australia. Comparative analysis revealed that birds feeding at the wastewater treatment plant carried the greatest resistance gene burden, including genes typically associated with multidrug resistance plasmids as the aac(6)-Ib-cr gene. Differences in resistance gene burden also reflected aspects of bird ecology, taxonomy, and microbial function. Notably, ducks, which feed by dabbling, carried a higher abundance and diversity of resistance genes than turnstones, avocets, and penguins, which usually prey on more pristine waters. CONCLUSIONS: These transcriptome data suggest that human waste, even if it undergoes treatment, might contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes to the wild. Differences in microbiome functioning across different bird lineages may also play a role in the antibiotic resistance burden carried by wild birds. In summary, we reveal the complex factors explaining the distribution of resistance genes and their exchange routes between humans and wildlife, and show that meta-transcriptomics is a valuable tool to access functional resistance genes in whole microbial communities.201930961590
768530.9998Gut heavy metal and antibiotic resistome of humans living in the high Arctic. Contaminants, such as heavy metals (HMs), accumulate in the Arctic environment and the food web. The diet of the Indigenous Peoples of North Greenland includes locally sourced foods that are central to their nutritional, cultural, and societal health but these foods also contain high concentrations of heavy metals. While bacteria play an essential role in the metabolism of xenobiotics, there are limited studies on the impact of heavy metals on the human gut microbiome, and it is so far unknown if and how Arctic environmental contaminants impact the gut microbes of humans living in and off the Arctic environment. Using a multiomics approach including amplicon, metagenome, and metatranscriptome sequencing, we identified and assembled a near-complete (NC) genome of a mercury-resistant bacterial strain from the human gut microbiome, which expressed genes known to reduce mercury toxicity. At the overall ecological level studied through α- and β-diversity, there was no significant effect of heavy metals on the gut microbiota. Through the assembly of a high number of NC metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) of human gut microbes, we observed an almost complete overlap between heavy metal-resistant strains and antibiotic-resistant strains in which resistance genes were all located on the same genetic elements.202439539714
399740.9997Pyrosequencing of antibiotic-contaminated river sediments reveals high levels of resistance and gene transfer elements. The high and sometimes inappropriate use of antibiotics has accelerated the development of antibiotic resistance, creating a major challenge for the sustainable treatment of infections world-wide. Bacterial communities often respond to antibiotic selection pressure by acquiring resistance genes, i.e. mobile genetic elements that can be shared horizontally between species. Environmental microbial communities maintain diverse collections of resistance genes, which can be mobilized into pathogenic bacteria. Recently, exceptional environmental releases of antibiotics have been documented, but the effects on the promotion of resistance genes and the potential for horizontal gene transfer have yet received limited attention. In this study, we have used culture-independent shotgun metagenomics to investigate microbial communities in river sediments exposed to waste water from the production of antibiotics in India. Our analysis identified very high levels of several classes of resistance genes as well as elements for horizontal gene transfer, including integrons, transposons and plasmids. In addition, two abundant previously uncharacterized resistance plasmids were identified. The results suggest that antibiotic contamination plays a role in the promotion of resistance genes and their mobilization from environmental microbes to other species and eventually to human pathogens. The entire life-cycle of antibiotic substances, both before, under and after usage, should therefore be considered to fully evaluate their role in the promotion of resistance.201121359229
399450.9997Environmental Biofilms as Reservoirs for Antimicrobial Resistance. Characterizing the response of microbial communities to a range of antibiotic concentrations is one of the strategies used to understand the impact of antibiotic resistance. Many studies have described the occurrence and prevalence of antibiotic resistance in microbial communities from reservoirs such as hospitals, sewage, and farm feedlots, where bacteria are often exposed to high and/or constant concentrations of antibiotics. Outside of these sources, antibiotics generally occur at lower, sub-minimum inhibitory concentrations (sub-MICs). The constant exposure to low concentrations of antibiotics may serve as a chemical "cue" that drives development of antibiotic resistance. Low concentrations of antibiotics have not yet been broadly described in reservoirs outside of the aforementioned environments, nor is the transfer and dissemination of antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes within natural microbial communities fully understood. This review will thus focus on low antibiotic-concentration environmental reservoirs and mechanisms that are important in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance to help identify key knowledge gaps concerning the environmental resistome.202134970233
428460.9997Overview on the role of heavy metals tolerance on developing antibiotic resistance in both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Environmental health is a critical concern, continuously contaminated by physical and biological components (viz., anthropogenic activity), which adversely affect on biodiversity, ecosystems and human health. Nonetheless, environmental pollution has great impact on microbial communities, especially bacteria, which try to evolve in changing environment. For instance, during the course of adaptation, bacteria easily become resistance to antibiotics and heavy metals. Antibiotic resistance genes are now one of the most vital pollutants, provided as a source of frequent horizontal gene transfer. In this review, the environmental cause of multidrug resistance (MDR) that was supposed to be driven by either heavy metals or combination of environmental factors was essentially reviewed, especially focussed on the correlation between accumulation of heavy metals and development of MDR by bacteria. This kind of correlation was seemed to be non-significant, i.e. paradoxical. Gram-positive bacteria accumulating much of toxic heavy metal (i.e. highly stress tolerance) were unlikely to become MDR, whereas Gram-negative bacteria that often avoid accumulation of toxic heavy metal by efflux pump systems were come out to be more prone to MDR. So far, other than antibiotic contaminant, no such available data strongly support the direct influence of heavy metals in bacterial evolution of MDR; combinations of factors may drive the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, Gram-positive bacteria are most likely to be an efficient member in treatment of industrial waste water, especially in the removal of heavy metals, perhaps inducing the less chance of antibiotic resistance pollution in the environment.202133811263
403370.9997Evolution and ecology of antibiotic resistance genes. A new perspective on the topic of antibiotic resistance is beginning to emerge based on a broader evolutionary and ecological understanding rather than from the traditional boundaries of clinical research of antibiotic-resistant bacterial pathogens. Phylogenetic insights into the evolution and diversity of several antibiotic resistance genes suggest that at least some of these genes have a long evolutionary history of diversification that began well before the 'antibiotic era'. Besides, there is no indication that lateral gene transfer from antibiotic-producing bacteria has played any significant role in shaping the pool of antibiotic resistance genes in clinically relevant and commensal bacteria. Most likely, the primary antibiotic resistance gene pool originated and diversified within the environmental bacterial communities, from which the genes were mobilized and penetrated into taxonomically and ecologically distant bacterial populations, including pathogens. Dissemination and penetration of antibiotic resistance genes from antibiotic producers were less significant and essentially limited to other high G+C bacteria. Besides direct selection by antibiotics, there is a number of other factors that may contribute to dissemination and maintenance of antibiotic resistance genes in bacterial populations.200717490428
399380.9997Environmental dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes and correlation to anthropogenic contamination with antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem which threatens modern healthcare globally. Resistance has traditionally been viewed as a clinical problem, but recently non-clinical environments have been highlighted as an important factor in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) events are likely to be common in aquatic environments; integrons in particular are well suited for mediating environmental dissemination of ARGs. A growing body of evidence suggests that ARGs are ubiquitous in natural environments. Particularly, elevated levels of ARGs and integrons in aquatic environments are correlated to proximity to anthropogenic activities. The source of this increase is likely to be routine discharge of antibiotics and resistance genes, for example, via wastewater or run-off from livestock facilities and agriculture. While very high levels of antibiotic contamination are likely to select for resistant bacteria directly, the role of sub-inhibitory concentrations of antibiotics in environmental antibiotic resistance dissemination remains unclear. In vitro studies have shown that low levels of antibiotics can select for resistant mutants and also facilitate HGT, indicating the need for caution. Overall, it is becoming increasingly clear that the environment plays an important role in dissemination of antibiotic resistance; further studies are needed to elucidate key aspects of this process. Importantly, the levels of environmental antibiotic contamination at which resistant bacteria are selected for and HGT is facilitated at should be determined. This would enable better risk analyses and facilitate measures for preventing dissemination and development of antibiotic resistance in the environment.201526356096
962990.9997Costs of antibiotic resistance genes depend on host strain and environment and can influence community composition. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) benefit host bacteria in environments containing corresponding antibiotics, but it is less clear how they are maintained in environments where antibiotic selection is weak or sporadic. In particular, few studies have measured if the direct effect of ARGs on host fitness is fixed or if it depends on the host strain, perhaps marking some ARG-host combinations as selective refuges that can maintain ARGs in the absence of antibiotic selection. We quantified the fitness effects of six ARGs in 11 diverse Escherichia spp. strains. Three ARGs (bla(TEM-116), cat and dfrA5, encoding resistance to β-lactams, chloramphenicol, and trimethoprim, respectively) imposed an overall cost, but all ARGs had an effect in at least one host strain, reflecting a significant strain interaction effect. A simulation predicts these interactions can cause the success of ARGs to depend on available host strains, and, to a lesser extent, can cause host strain success to depend on the ARGs present in a community. These results indicate the importance of considering ARG effects across different host strains, and especially the potential of refuge strains to allow resistance to persist in the absence of direct selection, in efforts to understand resistance dynamics.202438889784
3996100.9997Antibiotic resistance gene spread due to manure application on agricultural fields. The usage of antibiotics in animal husbandry has promoted the development and abundance of antibiotic resistance in farm environments. Manure has become a reservoir of resistant bacteria and antibiotic compounds, and its application to agricultural soils is assumed to significantly increase antibiotic resistance genes and selection of resistant bacterial populations in soil. The genome location of resistance genes is likely to shift towards mobile genetic elements such as broad-host-range plasmids, integrons, and transposable elements. Horizontal transfer of these elements to bacteria adapted to soil or other habitats supports their environmental transmission independent of the original host. The human exposure to soil-borne resistance has yet to be determined, but is likely to be severely underestimated.201121546307
3991110.9997Antibiotic resistant pathogenic bacteria and their resistance genes in bacterial biofilms. Biofilm-forming bacteria are ubiquitous in the environment and also include biofilm-forming pathogens. Environmental biofilms may form a reservoir for risk genes and may act as a challenge for human health. Examples of the health relevance of biofilms are the increase in antibiotic resistant bacteria hosted in biofilms in hospital and environment and consequently the interaction of these bacteria with human cells, e.g. in the immune system. Although data concerning the occurrence and spread of resistant bacteria within hospital care units are available, the fate of these bacteria in the environment and especially in the aquatic environment has barely been investigated. Once antibiotic resistant bacteria have entered the environment, a back coupling by ingestion or other possible entry into the host has to be prevented. Therefore a strategy to investigate paths of entry, accumulation and spread of resistant bacteria in environmental compartments has been developed using quantitative determination of genetic resistance determinants. Additionally a bacterial bioassay assessed bioeffectivity thresholds of low antibiotic concentrations. This approach enables an evaluation of the potential of contaminated waters to exert a selection pressure on bacterial communities and thus promote the persistence of resistant organisms. Completed with an indicator system for the identification of sources of multiresistant bacteria a concept for monitoring and evaluation of environmental compartments with respect to their potential of antibiotic resistance dissemination is suggested.200616705607
3988120.9997The Phenomenon of Antibiotic Resistance in the Polar Regions: An Overview of the Global Problem. The increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance is a global problem in human and animal health. This leads to a reduction in the therapeutic effectiveness of the measures used so far and to the limitation of treatment options, which may pose a threat to human health and life. The problem of phenomenon of antibiotic resistance affects more and more the polar regions. This is due to the increase in tourist traffic and the number of people staying at research stations, unmodernised sewage systems in inhabited areas, as well as the migration of animals or the movement of microplastics, which may contain resistant bacteria. Research shows that the presence of antibiotic resistance genes is more dominant in zones of human and wildlife influence than in remote areas. In a polluted environment, there is evidence of a direct correlation between human activity and the spread and survival of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Attention should be paid to the presence of resistance to synthetic and semi-synthetic antibiotics in the polar regions, which is likely to be correlated with human presence and activity, and possible steps to be taken. We need to understand many more aspects of this, such as bacterial epigenetics and environmental stress, in order to develop effective strategies for minimizing the spread of antibiotic resistance genes. Studying the diversity and abundance of antibiotic resistance genes in regions with less anthropogenic activity could provide insight into the diversity of primary genes and explain the historical evolution of antibiotic resistance.202337034396
7474130.9997Fecal pollution can explain antibiotic resistance gene abundances in anthropogenically impacted environments. Discharge of treated sewage leads to release of antibiotic resistant bacteria, resistance genes and antibiotic residues to the environment. However, it is unclear whether increased abundance of antibiotic resistance genes in sewage and sewage-impacted environments is due to on-site selection pressure by residual antibiotics, or is simply a result of fecal contamination with resistant bacteria. Here we analyze relative resistance gene abundance and accompanying extent of fecal pollution in publicly available metagenomic data, using crAssphage sequences as a marker of human fecal contamination (crAssphage is a bacteriophage that is exceptionally abundant in, and specific to, human feces). We find that the presence of resistance genes can largely be explained by fecal pollution, with no clear signs of selection in the environment, with the exception of environments polluted by very high levels of antibiotics from manufacturing, where selection is evident. Our results demonstrate the necessity to take into account fecal pollution levels to avoid making erroneous assumptions regarding environmental selection of antibiotic resistance.201930622259
3342140.9997Marine sediment bacteria harbor antibiotic resistance genes highly similar to those found in human pathogens. The ocean is a natural habitat for antibiotic-producing bacteria, and marine aquaculture introduces antibiotics into the ocean to treat infections and improve aquaculture production. Studies have shown that the ocean is an important reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes. However, there is a lack of understanding and knowledge about the clinical importance of the ocean resistome. We investigated the relationship between the ocean bacterial resistome and pathogenic resistome. We applied high-throughput sequencing and metagenomic analyses to explore the resistance genes in bacterial plasmids from marine sediments. Numerous putative resistance determinants were detected among the resistance genes in the sediment bacteria. We also found that several contigs shared high identity with transposons or plasmids from human pathogens, indicating that the sediment bacteria recently contributed or acquired resistance genes from pathogens. Marine sediment bacteria could play an important role in the global exchange of antibiotic resistance.201323370726
9631150.9997Mathematical model for the transport of fluoroquinolone and its resistant bacteria in aquatic environment. Development of antibiotic resistance in environmental bacteria is a direct threat to public health. Therefore, it becomes necessary to understand the fate and transport of antibiotic and its resistant bacteria. This paper presents a mathematical model for spatial and temporal transport of fluoroquinolone and its resistant bacteria in the aquatic environment of the river. The model includes state variables for organic matter, fluoroquinolone, heavy metals, and susceptible and resistant bacteria in the water column and sediment bed. Resistant gene is the factor which makes bacteria resistant to a particular antibiotic and is majorly carried on plasmids. Plasmid-mediated resistance genes are transferable between different bacterial species through conjugation (horizontal resistance transfer). This model includes plasmid dynamics between susceptible and resistant bacteria by considering the rate of horizontal resistance gene transfer among bacteria and the rate of losing resistance (segregation). The model describes processes which comprise of advection, dispersion, degradation, adsorption, diffusion, settling, resuspension, microbial growth, segregation, and transfer of resistance genes. The mathematical equations were solved by using numerical methods (implicit-explicit scheme) with appropriate boundary conditions. The development of the present model was motivated by the fact that the Musi River is heavily impacted by antibiotic pollution which led to the development of antibiotic resistance in its aquatic environment. The model was simulated for hypothetical pollution scenarios to predict the future conditions under various pollution management alternatives. The simulation results of the model for different cases show that the concentration of antibiotic, the concentration of organic matter, segregation rate, and horizontal transfer rate are the governing factors in the variation of population density of resistant bacteria. The treatment of effluents for antibiotics might be costly for the bulk drug manufacturing industries, but the guidelines can be made to reduce the organic matter which can limit the growth rate of microbes and reduce the total microbial population in the river. The reduction in antibiotic concentration can reduce the selection pressure on bacteria and can limit the population of resistant culture and its influence zone in the river stretch; however, complete removal of antibiotics may not result in complete elimination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.201828780691
3339160.9997Examining the taxonomic distribution of tetracycline resistance in a wastewater plant. Microbial communities serve as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and facilitate the dissemination of these genes to bacteria that infect humans. Relatively little is known about the taxonomic distribution of bacteria harboring ARGs in these reservoirs and the avenues of transmission due to the technical hurdles associated with characterizing the contents of complex microbial populations and the assignment of genes to particular genomes. Focusing on the array of tetracycline resistance (Tc(r)) genes in the primary and secondary phases of wastewater treatment, 17 of the 22 assayed Tc(r) genes were detected in at least one sample. We then applied emulsion, paired isolation, and concatenation PCR (epicPCR) to link tetracycline resistance genes to specific bacterial hosts. Whereas Tc(r) genes tend to vary in their distributions among bacterial taxa according to their modes of action, there were numerous instances in which a particular Tc(r) gene was associated with a host that was distantly related to all other bacteria bearing the same gene, including several hosts not previously identified. Tc(r) genes are far less host-restricted than previously assumed, indicating that complex microbial communities serve as settings where ARGs are spread among divergent bacterial phyla.202438317688
7405170.9997Microbial Diversity and Antimicrobial Resistance Profile in Microbiota From Soils of Conventional and Organic Farming Systems. Soil is one of the biggest reservoirs of microbial diversity, yet the processes that define the community dynamics are not fully understood. Apart from soil management being vital for agricultural purposes, it is also considered a favorable environment for the evolution and development of antimicrobial resistance, which is due to its high complexity and ongoing competition between the microorganisms. Different approaches to agricultural production might have specific outcomes for soil microbial community composition and antibiotic resistance phenotype. Therefore in this study we aimed to compare the soil microbiota and its resistome in conventional and organic farming systems that are continually influenced by the different treatment (inorganic fertilizers and pesticides vs. organic manure and no chemical pest management). The comparison of the soil microbial communities revealed no major differences among the main phyla of bacteria between the two farming styles with similar soil structure and pH. Only small differences between the lower taxa could be observed indicating that the soil community is stable, with minor shifts in composition being able to handle the different styles of treatment and fertilization. It is still unclear what level of intensity can change microbial composition but current conventional farming in Central Europe demonstrates acceptable level of intensity for soil bacterial communities. When the resistome of the soils was assessed by screening the total soil DNA for clinically relevant and soil-derived antibiotic resistance genes, a low variety of resistance determinants was detected (resistance to β-lactams, aminoglycosides, tetracycline, erythromycin, and rifampicin) with no clear preference for the soil farming type. The same soil samples were also used to isolate antibiotic resistant cultivable bacteria, which were predominated by highly resistant isolates of Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Sphingobacterium and Chryseobacterium genera. The resistance of these isolates was largely dependent on the efflux mechanisms, the soil Pseudomonas spp. relying mostly on RND, while Stenotrophomonas spp. and Chryseobacterium spp. on RND and ABC transporters.201931105678
3906180.9997Survival in amoeba--a major selection pressure on the presence of bacterial copper and zinc resistance determinants? Identification of a "copper pathogenicity island". The presence of metal resistance determinants in bacteria usually is attributed to geological or anthropogenic metal contamination in different environments or associated with the use of antimicrobial metals in human healthcare or in agriculture. While this is certainly true, we hypothesize that protozoan predation and macrophage killing are also responsible for selection of copper/zinc resistance genes in bacteria. In this review, we outline evidence supporting this hypothesis, as well as highlight the correlation between metal resistance and pathogenicity in bacteria. In addition, we introduce and characterize the "copper pathogenicity island" identified in Escherichia coli and Salmonella strains isolated from copper- and zinc-fed Danish pigs.201526088177
4285190.9997Living with sulfonamides: a diverse range of mechanisms observed in bacteria. Sulfonamides are the oldest class of synthetic antibiotics still in use in clinical and veterinary settings. The intensive utilization of sulfonamides has been leading to the widespread contamination of the environment with these xenobiotic compounds. Consequently, in addition to pathogens and commensals, also bacteria inhabiting a wide diversity of environmental compartments have been in contact with sulfonamides for almost 90 years. This review aims at giving an overview of the effect of sulfonamides on bacterial cells, including the strategies used by bacteria to cope with these bacteriostatic agents. These include mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, co-metabolic transformation, and partial or total mineralization of sulfonamides. Possible implications of these mechanisms on the ecosystems and dissemination of antibiotic resistance are also discussed. KEY POINTS: • Sulfonamides are widespread xenobiotic pollutants; • Target alteration is the main sulfonamide resistance mechanism observed in bacteria; • Sulfonamides can be modified, degraded, or used as nutrients by some bacteria.202033175245