Antibiotic resistomes and their chemical residues in aquatic environments in Africa. - Related Documents




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671501.0000Antibiotic resistomes and their chemical residues in aquatic environments in Africa. The aquatic environment is a hotspot for the transfer of antibiotic resistance to humans and animals. Several reviews have put together research efforts on the presence and distribution of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and antibiotic chemical residue (ACRs) in food, hospital wastewater, and even in other aquatic environments. However, these reports are largely focused on data from developed countries, while data from developing countries and especially those in Africa, are only marginally discussed. This review is the first effort that distills information on the presence and distribution of ARGs and ACRs in the African aquatic environments (2012-2021). This review provides critical information on efforts put into the study of ARB, ARGs, and ACRs in aquatic environments in Africa through the lens of the different sub-regions in the continent. The picture provided is compared with those from some other continents in the world. It turns out that the large economies in Africa (South Africa, Nigeria, Tunisia, Kenya) all have a few reports of ARB and ARGs in their aquatic environment while smaller economies in the continent could barely provide reports of these in their aquatic environment (in most cases no report was found) even though they have some reports on resistomes from clinical studies. Interestingly, the frequency of these reports of ARB and ARGs in aquatic environments in Africa suggests that the continent is ahead of the South American continent but behind Europe and Asia in relation to providing information on these contaminants. Common ARGs found in African aquatic environment encode resistance to sulfonamide, tetracycline, β-lactam, and macrolide classes of antibiotics. The efforts and studies from African scientists in eliminating ARB and ARGs from the aquatic environment in Africa are also highlighted. Overall, this document is a ready source of credible information for scientists, policy makers, governments, and regional bodies on ARB, ARGs, and ACRs in aquatic environments in Africa. Hopefully, the information provided in this review will inspire some necessary responses from all stakeholders in the water quality sector in Africa to put in more effort into providing more scientific evidence of the presence of ARB, ARGs, and ACRs in their aquatic environment and seek more efficient ways to handle them to curtail the spread of antibiotic resistance among the population in the continent. This will in turn, put the continent on the right path to meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals #3 and #6, which at the moment, appears to be largely missed by most countries in the continent.202235863703
388910.9999Emerging Trends in Antimicrobial Resistance in Polar Aquatic Ecosystems. The global spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) threatens to plummet society back to the pre-antibiotic era through a resurgence of common everyday infections' morbidity. Thus, studies investigating antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in urban, agricultural, and clinical settings, as well as in extreme environments, have become increasingly relevant in the One Health perspective. Since the Antarctic and Arctic regions are considered amongst the few remaining pristine environments on Earth, the characterization of their native resistome appears to be of the utmost importance to understand whether and how it is evolving as a result of anthropogenic activities and climate change. In the present review, we report on the phenotypic (e.g., disk diffusion test) and genotypic (e.g., PCR, metagenomics) approaches used to study AMR in the aquatic environment of polar regions, as water represents one of AMR main dissemination routes in nature. Their advantages and limits are described, and the emerging trends resulting from the analysis of ARB and ARGs diffusion in polar waters discussed. The resistome detected in these extreme environments appears to be mostly comparable to those from more anthropized areas, with the predominance of tetracycline, β-lactam, and sulfonamide resistance (and related ARGs). Indeed, AMR is, in all cases, more consistently highlighted in sites impacted by human and wildlife activities with respect to more pristine ones. Surprisingly, aminoglycoside and fluroquinolone determinants seem to have an even higher incidence in the Antarctic and Arctic aquatic environment compared to that from other areas of the world, corroborating the need for a more thorough AMR surveillance in these regions.202540298543
651320.9998Antibiotic Resistance Dissemination and Mapping in the Environment Through Surveillance of Wastewater. Antibiotic resistance is one of the major health threat for humans, animals, and the environment, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Global Antibiotic-Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS). In the last several years, wastewater/sewage has been identified as potential hotspots for the dissemination of antibiotic resistance and transfer of resistance genes. However, systematic approaches for mapping the antibiotic resistance situation in sewage are limited and underdeveloped. The present review has highlighted all possible perspectives by which the dynamics of ARBs/ARGs in the environment may be tracked, quantified and assessed spatio-temporally through surveillance of wastewater. Moreover, application of advanced methods like wastewater metagenomics for determining the community distribution of resistance at large has appeared to be promising. In addition, monitoring wastewater for antibiotic pollution at various levels, may serve as an early warning system and enable policymakers to take timely measures and build infrastructure to mitigate health crises. Thus, by understanding the alarming presence of antibiotic resistance in wastewater, effective action plans may be developed to address this global health challenge and its associated environmental risks.202539676299
672030.9998Human, animal and environmental contributors to antibiotic resistance in low-resource settings: integrating behavioural, epidemiological and One Health approaches. Antibiotic resistance (ABR) is recognized as a One Health challenge because of the rapid emergence and dissemination of resistant bacteria and genes among humans, animals and the environment on a global scale. However, there is a paucity of research assessing ABR contemporaneously in humans, animals and the environment in low-resource settings. This critical review seeks to identify the extent of One Health research on ABR in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Existing research has highlighted hotspots for environmental contamination; food-animal production systems that are likely to harbour reservoirs or promote transmission of ABR as well as high and increasing human rates of colonization with ABR commensal bacteria such as Escherichia coli However, very few studies have integrated all three components of the One Health spectrum to understand the dynamics of transmission and the prevalence of community-acquired resistance in humans and animals. Microbiological, epidemiological and social science research is needed at community and population levels across the One Health spectrum in order to fill the large gaps in knowledge of ABR in low-resource settings.201829643217
654840.9998Review of Antimicrobial Resistance in Wastewater in Japan: Current Challenges and Future Perspectives. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) circulates through humans, animals, and the environments, requiring a One Health approach. Recently, urban sewage has increasingly been suggested as a hotspot for AMR even in high-income countries (HICs), where the water sanitation and hygiene infrastructure are well-developed. To understand the current status of AMR in wastewater in a HIC, we reviewed the epidemiological studies on AMR in the sewage environment in Japan from the published literature. Our review showed that a wide variety of clinically important antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and antimicrobial residues are present in human wastewater in Japan. Their concentrations are lower than in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and are further reduced by sewage treatment plants (STPs) before discharge. Nevertheless, the remaining ARB and ARGs could be an important source of AMR contamination in river water. Furthermore, hospital effluence may be an important reservoir of clinically important ARB. The high concentration of antimicrobial agents commonly prescribed in Japan may contribute to the selection and dissemination of AMR within wastewater. Our review shows the importance of both monitoring for AMR and antimicrobials in human wastewater and efforts to reduce their contamination load in wastewater.202235884103
655050.9998Distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in the environment. The prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the microbiome is a major public health concern globally. Many habitats in the environment are under threat due to excessive use of antibiotics and evolutionary changes occurring in the resistome. ARB and ARGs from farms, cities and hospitals, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) or as water runoffs, may accumulate in water, soil, and air. We present a global picture of the resistome by examining ARG-related papers retrieved from PubMed and published in the last 30 years (1990-2020). Natural Language Processing (NLP) was used to retrieve 496,640 papers, out of which 9374 passed the filtering test and were further analyzed to determine the distribution and diversity of ARG subtypes. The papers revealed seven major antibiotic families together with their respective ARG subtypes in different habitats on six continents. Asia, especially China, had the highest number of ARGs related papers compared to other countries/regions/continents. ARGs belonging to multidrug, glycopeptide, and β-lactam families were the most common in reports from hospitals and sulfonamide and tetracycline families were common in reports from farms, WWTPs, water and soil. We also highlight the 'omics' tools used in resistome research, describe some factors that shape the development of resistome, and suggest future work needed to better understand the resistome. The goal was to show the global nature of ARB and ARGs in order to encourage collaborate research efforts aimed at reducing the negative impacts of antibiotic resistance on the One Health concept.202134051569
670160.9998Current Insights Regarding the Role of Farm Animals in the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance from a One Health Perspective. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a global threat to both human and animal health and has received increasing attention over the years from different stakeholders. Certain AMR bacteria circulate between humans, animals, and the environment, while AMR genes can be found in all ecosystems. The aim of the present review was to provide an overview of antimicrobial use in food-producing animals and to document the current status of the role of farm animals in the spread of AMR to humans. The available body of scientific evidence supported the notion that restricted use of antimicrobials in farm animals was effective in reducing AMR in livestock and, in some cases, in humans. However, most recent studies have reported that livestock have little contribution to the acquisition of AMR bacteria and/or AMR genes by humans. Overall, strategies applied on farms that target the reduction of all antimicrobials are recommended, as these are apparently associated with notable reduction in AMR (avoiding co-resistance between antimicrobials). The interconnection between human and animal health as well as the environment requires the acceleration of the implementation of the 'One Health' approach to effectively fight AMR while preserving the effectiveness of antimicrobials.202236136696
670670.9998Antimicrobial Resistance Development Pathways in Surface Waters and Public Health Implications. Human health is threatened by antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their related infections, which cause thousands of human deaths every year worldwide. Surface waters are vulnerable to human activities and natural processes that facilitate the emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the environment. This study evaluated the pathways and drivers of antimicrobial resistance (AR) in surface waters. We analyzed antibiotic resistance healthcare-associated infection (HAI) data reported to the CDC's National Healthcare Safety Network to determine the number of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens and their isolates detected in healthcare facilities. Ten pathogens and their isolates associated with HAIs tested resistant to the selected antibiotics, indicating the role of healthcare facilities in antimicrobial resistance in the environment. The analyzed data and literature research revealed that healthcare facilities, wastewater, agricultural settings, food, and wildlife populations serve as the major vehicles for AR in surface waters. Antibiotic residues, heavy metals, natural processes, and climate change were identified as the drivers of antimicrobial resistance in the aquatic environment. Food and animal handlers have a higher risk of exposure to resistant pathogens through ingestion and direct contact compared with the general population. The AR threat to public health may grow as pathogens in aquatic systems adjust to antibiotic residues, contaminants, and climate change effects. The unnecessary use of antibiotics increases the risk of AR, and the public should be encouraged to practice antibiotic stewardship to decrease the risk.202235740227
388680.9998β-Lactam antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in Asian lakes and rivers: An overview of contamination, sources and detection methods. Lakes and rivers are sources of livelihood, food and water in many parts of the world. Lakes provide natural resources and valuable ecosystem services. These aquatic ecosystems are also vulnerable to known and new environmental pollutants. Emerging water contaminants are now being studied including antibiotics because of the global phenomenon on antibiotic resistance. β-Lactam antibiotics are widely used in human and animal disease prevention or treatment. The emergence of antibiotic resistance is a public health threat when bacteria become more resistant and infections consequently increase requiring treatment using last resort drugs that are more expensive. This review summarizes the key findings on the occurrence, contamination sources, and determination of β-lactam antibiotics and β-lactam antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes in the Asian lake and river waters. The current methods in the analytical measurements of β-lactam antibiotics in water involving solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry are discussed. Also described is the determination of antibiotic resistance genes which is primarily based on a polymerase chain reaction method. To date, β-lactam antibiotics in the Asian aquatic environments are reported in the ng/L concentrations. Studies on β-lactam resistant bacteria and resistance genes were mostly conducted in China. The occurrence of these emerging contaminants is largely uncharted because many aquatic systems in the Asian region remain to be studied. Comprehensive investigations encompassing the environmental behavior of β-lactam antibiotics, emergence of resistant bacteria, transfer of resistance genes to non-resistant bacteria, multiple antibiotic resistance, and effects on aquatic biota are needed particularly in rivers and lakes that are eventual sinks of these water contaminants.202133571856
670790.9998Investigating the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in the environment in Canada: a scoping review. Antimicrobial resistance is an environmental, agricultural, and public health problem that is impacting the health of humans and animals. The role of the environment as a source of and transmission pathway for antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes is a topic of increasing interest that, to date, has received limited attention. This study aimed to describe the sources and possible pathways contributing to antimicrobial resistance dissemination through bioaerosols, water, and soil in Canada using a scoping review methodology and systems thinking approach. A systems map was created to describe the occurrence and relationships between sources and pathways for antimicrobial resistance dissemination through water, soil, and bioaerosols. The map guided the development of the scoping review protocol, specifically the keywords searched and what data were extracted from the included studies. In total, 103 studies of antimicrobial resistance in water, 67 in soil, and 12 in air were identified. Studies to detect the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes have mainly been conducted at wastewater treatment plants and commercial animal livestock facilities. We also identified elements in the systems map with little or no data available (e.g., retail) that need to be investigated further to have a better understanding of antimicrobial resistance dissemination through different Canadian environments.202540279669
6516100.9998Current status and future perspective of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and resistance genes in animal-breeding environments. The emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) are a global public health concern. ARB are transmitted directly or indirectly from animals to humans. The importance of environmental transmission of ARB and ARGs has recently been demonstrated, given the relationships between compost, livestock wastewater, insects, and wildlife. In addition, companion animals and their surrounding environments (veterinary hospitals and homes with companion animals) should be considered owing to their close relationship with humans. This review discusses the current status and future perspectives of ARB and ARGs in animal-breeding environments.202235871558
6521110.9998Hiding in plain sight-wildlife as a neglected reservoir and pathway for the spread of antimicrobial resistance: a narrative review. Antimicrobial resistance represents a global health problem, with infections due to pathogenic antimicrobial resistant bacteria (ARB) predicted to be the most frequent cause of human mortality by 2050. The phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance has spread to and across all ecological niches, and particularly in livestock used for food production with antimicrobials consumed in high volumes. Similarly, hospitals and other healthcare facilities are recognized as significant 'hotspots' of ARB and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs); however, over the past decade, new and previously overlooked ecological niches are emerging as hidden reservoirs of ARB/ARGs. Increasingly extensive and intensive industrial activities, degradation of natural environments, burgeoning food requirements, urbanization, and global climatic change have all dramatically affected the evolution and proliferation of ARB/ARGs, which now stand at extremely concerning ecological levels. While antimicrobial resistant bacteria and genes as they originate and emanate from livestock and human hosts have been extensively studied over the past 30 years, numerous ecological niches have received considerably less attention. In the current descriptive review, the authors have sought to highlight the importance of wildlife as sources/reservoirs, pathways and receptors of ARB/ARGs in the environment, thus paving the way for future primary research in these areas.202235425978
6569120.9998Unveiling Rare Pathogens and Antibiotic Resistance in Tanzanian Cholera Outbreak Waters. The emergence of antibiotic resistance is a global health concern. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of its spread is crucial for implementing evidence-based strategies to tackle resistance in the context of the One Health approach. In developing countries where sanitation systems and access to clean and safe water are still major challenges, contamination may introduce bacteria and bacteriophages harboring antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) into the environment. This contamination can increase the risk of exposure and community transmission of ARGs and infectious pathogens. However, there is a paucity of information on the mechanisms of bacteriophage-mediated spread of ARGs and patterns through the environment. Here, we deploy Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR) and metagenomics approaches to analyze the abundance of ARGs and bacterial pathogens disseminated through clean and wastewater systems. We detected a relatively less-studied and rare human zoonotic pathogen, Vibrio metschnikovii, known to spread through fecal--oral contamination, similarly to V. cholerae. Several antibiotic resistance genes were identified in both bacterial and bacteriophage fractions from water sources. Using metagenomics, we detected several resistance genes related to tetracyclines and beta-lactams in all the samples. Environmental samples from outlet wastewater had a high diversity of ARGs and contained high levels of blaOXA-48. Other identified resistance profiles included tetA, tetM, and blaCTX-M9. Specifically, we demonstrated that blaCTX-M1 is enriched in the bacteriophage fraction from wastewater. In general, however, the bacterial community has a significantly higher abundance of resistance genes compared to the bacteriophage population. In conclusion, the study highlights the need to implement environmental monitoring of clean and wastewater to inform the risk of infectious disease outbreaks and the spread of antibiotic resistance in the context of One Health.202337894148
4983130.9998Clinically Relevant β-Lactam Resistance Genes in Wastewater Treatment Plants. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the largest global concerns due to its influence in multiple areas, which is consistent with One Health's concept of close interconnections between people, animals, plants, and their shared environments. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) circulate constantly in various niches, sediments, water sources, soil, and wastes of the animal and plant sectors, and is linked to human activities. Sewage of different origins gets to the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), where ARB and ARG removal efficiency is still insufficient, leading to their transmission to discharge points and further dissemination. Thus, WWTPs are believed to be reservoirs of ARGs and the source of spreading AMR. According to a World Health Organization report, the most critical pathogens for public health include Gram-negative bacteria resistant to third-generation cephalosporins and carbapenems (last-choice drugs), which represent β-lactams, the most widely used antibiotics. Therefore, this paper aimed to present the available research data for ARGs in WWTPs that confer resistance to β-lactam antibiotics, with a particular emphasis on clinically important life-threatening mechanisms of resistance, including extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) and carbapenemases (KPC, NDM).202236360709
6717140.9998Updated research agenda for water, sanitation and antimicrobial resistance. The emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), including clinically relevant antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, genetic resistance elements, and antibiotic residues, presents a significant threat to human health. Reducing the incidence of infection by improving water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) is one of five objectives in the World Health Organization's (WHO) Global Action Plan on AMR. In September 2019, WHO and the Health-Related Water Microbiology specialist group (HRWM-SG) of the International Water Association (IWA) organized its third workshop on AMR, focusing on the following three main issues: environmental pathways of AMR transmission, environmental surveillance, and removal from human waste. The workshop concluded that despite an increase in scientific evidence that the environment may play a significant role, especially in low-resource settings, the exact relative role of the environment is still unclear. Given many antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) can be part of the normal gut flora, it can be assumed that for environmental transmission, the burden of fecal-oral transmission of AMR in a geographical area follows that of WASH-related infections. There are some uncertainties as to the potential for the propagation of particular resistance genes within wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), but there is no doubt that the reduction in viable microbes (with or without resistance genes) available for transmission via the environment is one of the goals of human waste management. Although progress has been made in the past years with respect to quantifying environmental AMR transmission potential, still more data on the spread of environmental AMR within human communities is needed. Even though evidence on AMR in WWTPs has increased, the reduction in the emergence and spread of AMR by basic sanitation methods is yet unresolved. In order to contribute to the generation of harmonized One Health surveillance data, WHO has initiated an integrated One Health surveillance strategy that includes the environment. The main challenge lies in rolling it out globally including to the poorest regions.202033328358
6700150.9998Antimicrobial Resistance in Diverse Ecological Niches-One Health Perspective and Food Safety. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a multi-sectoral, systemic, and global issue worldwide. Antimicrobial use (AMU) is a key factor in the selection of resistant bacteria within different ecological niches, from agriculture to food-producing animals to humans. There is a question regarding the extent to which the use of antibiotics in livestock production and the primary food production sector influences the selection and transmission of resistant bacteria and/or resistant genes throughout the food chain and thus contributes to the complexity in the development of AMR in humans. Although the trends in the prevalence of foodborne pathogens have changed over time, the burden of ecological niches with resistance genes, primarily in commensal microorganisms, is of concern. The implementation of the harmonized surveillance of AMU and AMR would provide comprehensive insights into the actual status of resistance and further interventions leading to its reduction. Tracking AMR in different ecological niches by applying advanced genome-based techniques and developing shared AMR data repositories would strengthen the One Health concept.202540426510
6694160.9998Interconnected microbiomes and resistomes in low-income human habitats. Antibiotic-resistant infections annually claim hundreds of thousands of lives worldwide. This problem is exacerbated by exchange of resistance genes between pathogens and benign microbes from diverse habitats. Mapping resistance gene dissemination between humans and their environment is a public health priority. Here we characterized the bacterial community structure and resistance exchange networks of hundreds of interconnected human faecal and environmental samples from two low-income Latin American communities. We found that resistomes across habitats are generally structured by bacterial phylogeny along ecological gradients, but identified key resistance genes that cross habitat boundaries and determined their association with mobile genetic elements. We also assessed the effectiveness of widely used excreta management strategies in reducing faecal bacteria and resistance genes in these settings representative of low- and middle-income countries. Our results lay the foundation for quantitative risk assessment and surveillance of resistance gene dissemination across interconnected habitats in settings representing over two-thirds of the world's population.201627172044
6547170.9998An overview on the prevalence and potential impact of antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance in the aquatic environment of India. India at present is one of the leading countries in antimicrobial drug production and use, leading to increasing antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and public health problems. Attention has mainly been focused on the human and food animals' contribution to AMR neglecting the potential contribution of the perceptibly degraded aquatic environment in India. The paper reviews the available published literature in India on the prevalence of antimicrobial residues and their dissemination pathways in wastewater of pharmaceutical industries, sewage treatment plants, hospitals, riverine, community pond water, and groundwater. The prevalence of antimicrobial residue concentration, pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria antimicrobial resistant bacteria (ARB), their drug resistance levels, and their specific antimicrobial resistant genes (ARGs) occurring in various water matrices of India have been comprehensively depicted from existing literature. The concentration of some widely used antimicrobials recorded from the sewage treatment plants and hospital wastewater and rivers in India has been compared with other countries. The ecotoxicological risk posed by these antimicrobials in the various water matrices in India indicated high hazard quotient (HQ) values for pharmaceutical effluents, hospital effluents, and river water. The degraded aquatic environment exhibited the selection of a wide array of co-existent resistant genes for antibiotics and metals. The review revealed improper use of antibiotics and inadequate wastewater treatment as major drivers of AMR contaminating water bodies in India and suggestion for containing the challenges posed by AMR in India has been proposed.202337530878
6514180.9998Review of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes within the one health framework. Background: The interdisciplinary One Health (OH) approach recognizes that human, animal, and environmental health are all interconnected. Its ultimate goal is to promote optimal health for all through the exploration of these relationships. Antibiotic resistance (AR) is a public health challenge that has been primarily addressed within the context of human health and clinical settings. However, it has become increasingly evident that antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) that confer resistance are transmitted and circulated within humans, animals, and the environment. Therefore, to effectively address this issue, antibiotic resistance must also be considered an environmental and livestock/wildlife problem. Objective: This review was carried out to provide a broad overview of the existence of ARB and ARGs in One Health settings. Methods: Relevant studies that placed emphasis on ARB and ARGs were reviewed and key findings were accessed that illustrate the importance of One Health as a measure to tackle growing public and environmental threats. Results: In this review, we delve into the complex interplay of the three components of OH in relation to ARB and ARGs. Antibiotics used in animal husbandry and plants to promote growth, treat, and prevent infectious diseases lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animals. These bacteria are transmitted from animals to humans through food and environmental exposure. The environment plays a critical role in the circulation and persistence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and genes, posing a significant threat to human and animal health. This article also highlights how ARGs are spread in the environment through the transfer of genetic material between bacteria. This transfer can occur naturally or through human activities such as the use of antibiotics in agriculture and waste management practices. Conclusion: It is important to integrate the One Health approach into the public health system to effectively tackle the emergence and spread of ARB and genes that code for resistance to different antibiotics.202438371518
6557190.9998Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in water environments. Antibiotic-resistant organisms enter into water environments from human and animal sources. These bacteria are able to spread their genes into water-indigenous microbes, which also contain resistance genes. On the contrary, many antibiotics from industrial origin circulate in water environments, potentially altering microbial ecosystems. Risk assessment protocols for antibiotics and resistant bacteria in water, based on better systems for antibiotics detection and antibiotic-resistance microbial source tracking, are starting to be discussed. Methods to reduce resistant bacterial load in wastewaters, and the amount of antimicrobial agents, in most cases originated in hospitals and farms, include optimization of disinfection procedures and management of wastewater and manure. A policy for preventing mixing human-originated and animal-originated bacteria with environmental organisms seems advisable.200818534838