Interaction between microplastic biofilm formation and antibiotics: Effect of microplastic biofilm and its driving mechanisms on antibiotic resistance gene. - Related Documents




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639601.0000Interaction between microplastic biofilm formation and antibiotics: Effect of microplastic biofilm and its driving mechanisms on antibiotic resistance gene. As two pollutants with similar transport pathways, microplastics (MPs) and antibiotics (ATs) inevitably co-exist in water environments, and their interaction has become a topic of intense research interest for scholars over the past few years. This paper comprehensively and systematically reviews the current interaction between MPs and ATs, in particular, the role played by biofilm developed MPs (microplastic biofilm). A summary of the formation process of microplastic biofilm and its unique microbial community structure is presented in the paper. The formation of microplastic biofilm can enhance the adsorption mechanisms of ATs on primary MPs. Moreover, microplastic biofilm system is a diverse and vast reservoir of genetic material, and this paper reviews the mechanisms by which microplastics with biofilm drive the production of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and the processes that selectively enrich for more ARGs. Meanwhile, the enrichment of ARGs may lead to the development of microbial resistance and the gradual loss of the antimicrobial effect of ATs. The transfer pathways of ARGs affected by microplastic biofilm are outlined, and ARGs dependent transfer of antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB) is mainly through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Furthermore, the ecological implications of the interaction between microplastic biofilm and ATs and perspectives for future research are reviewed. This review contributes to a new insight into the aquatic ecological environmental risks and the fate of contaminants (MPs, ATs), and is of great significance for controlling the combined pollution of these two pollutants.202337517232
861210.9998Nano- and microplastics drive the dynamic equilibrium of amoeba-associated bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes. As emerging pollutants, microplastics have become pervasive on a global scale, inflicting significant harm upon ecosystems. However, the impact of these microplastics on the symbiotic relationship between protists and bacteria remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms through which nano- and microplastics of varying sizes and concentrations influence the amoeba-bacterial symbiotic system. The findings reveal that nano- and microplastics exert deleterious effects on the adaptability of the amoeba host, with the magnitude of these effects contingent upon particle size and concentration. Furthermore, nano- and microplastics disrupt the initial equilibrium in the symbiotic relationship between amoeba and bacteria, with nano-plastics demonstrating a reduced ability to colonize symbiotic bacteria within the amoeba host when compared to their microplastic counterparts. Moreover, nano- and microplastics enhance the relative abundance of antibiotic resistance genes and heavy metal resistance genes in the bacteria residing within the amoeba host, which undoubtedly increases the potential transmission risk of both human pathogens and resistance genes within the environment. In sum, the results presented herein provide a novel perspective and theoretical foundation for the study of interactions between microplastics and microbial symbiotic systems, along with the establishment of risk assessment systems for ecological environments and human health.202438905974
861320.9998Insights into the role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in the spread of antibiotic resistance genes. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARG) are prevalent in aquatic environments. Discharge from wastewater treatment plants is an important point source of ARG release into the environment. It has been reported that biological treatment processes may enhance rather than remove ARG because of their presence in sludge. Attenuation of ARG in biotechnological processes has been studied in depth, showing that many microorganisms can secrete complex extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). These EPS can serve as multifunctional elements of microbial communities, involving aspects, such as protection, structure, recognition, adhesion, and physiology. These aspects can influence the interaction between microbial cells and extracellular ARG, as well as the uptake of extracellular ARG by microbial cells, thus changing the transformative capability of extracellular ARG. However, it remains unclear whether EPS can affect horizontal ARG transfer, which is one of the main processes of ARG dissemination. In light of this knowledge gap, this review provides insight into the role of EPS in the transmission of ARGs; furthermore, the mechanism of ARG spread is analyzed, and the molecular compositions and functional properties of EPS are summarized; also, how EPS influence ARG mitigation is addressed, and factors impacting how EPS facilitate ARG during wastewater treatment are summarized. This review provides comprehensive insights into the role of EPS in controlling the transport and fate of ARG during biodegradation processes at the mechanistic level.202438169168
641030.9998Microplastics are a hotspot for antibiotic resistance genes: Progress and perspective. Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and microplastics in the environment are of great public concern due to their potential risk to human health. Microplastics can form distinct bacterial communities and absorb pollutants from the surrounding environment, which provide potential hosts and exert possible selection pressure of ARGs. We provide a practical evaluation of the scientific literature regarding this issue. The occurrence and transport of ARGs on microplastics in wastewater treatment plants, aquatic, terrestrial, and air environments were summarized. Selective enrichment of ARGs and antibiotic resistance bacteria on microplastics have been confirmed in different environments. Aggregates may be crucial to understand the behavior and transport of ARGs on microplastics, especially in the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Microplastics could be a carrier of ARGs between the environment and animals. Accumulation of pollutants and dense bacterial communities on microplastics provide favorable conditions for higher transfer rate and evolution of ARGs. More studies are still needed to understand the enrichment, transport, and transfer of ARGs on microplastics and provide a fundamental basis for evaluating their exposure health risk to humans.202133940744
641640.9997Antibiotic resistance in plastisphere. Microbial life on plastic debris, called plastisphere, has invoked special attention on aquatic ecosystems as emerging habitats for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB). There is scarce information concerning how properties of plastics influence ARGs and ARB, the effect of biofilms on enrichment of ARGs and ARB, and, especially, the influence of plastic transformation on ARGs and ARB. Limited research has shown that microplastic (MP) surfaces influence proliferation of antibiotic resistance (AR), aged MPs exhibit increased toxicity due to more adsorption-desorption of AR, and MP transformation is correlated with disseminating AR. Prevention measures of AR include minimizing MP releasing into aquatic environments and sewage treatment plants. The future research should aim to identify the interface mechanisms of transformed MNPs and antibiotics alone, or mixed with other contaminants, property changes of MNPs, and associated toxicity evaluation.202540265125
642050.9997Micro-interfacial behavior of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes in the soil environment: A review. Overutilization and misuse of antibiotics in recent decades markedly intensified the rapid proliferation and diffusion of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) within the environment, thereby elevating ARGs to the status of a global public health crisis. Recognizing that soil acts as a critical reservoir for ARGs, environmental researchers have made great progress in exploring the sources, distribution, and spread of ARGs in soil. However, the microscopic state and micro-interfacial behavior of ARGs in soil remains inadequately understood. In this study, we reviewed the micro-interfacial behaviors of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in soil and porous media, predominantly including migration-deposition, adsorption, and biofilm formation. Meanwhile, adsorption, proliferation, and degradation were identified as the primary micro-interfacial behaviors of ARGs in the soil, with component of soil serving as significant determinant. Our work contributes to the further comprehension of the microstates and processes of ARB and ARGs in the soil environments and offers a theoretical foundation for managing and mitigating the risks associated with ARG contamination.202439180776
641160.9997Are microplastics in aquaculture an undeniable driver in accelerating the spread of antibiotic resistance genes? Aquaculture products have been a key source of protein in the human food supply. Contamination by microplastics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) directly affects food quality and safety. Plastic fishing gear and the long-term misuse of antibiotics result in the persistent residue, migration, and spread of microplastics and ARGs in the aquaculture environment, causing in ecological imbalance and endangering human security. Microplastics can act as "petri dishes" for the reproduction, communication, and spread of ARGs, which adds an additional layer of complexity to the global issues surrounding microplastics and ARGs. Aquaculture has become an important source of microplastics and ARGs in natural waters. Accordingly, this paper mainly discusses the contribution of aquaculture to the presence of microplastics and ARGs in aquatic ecosystems. Microplastics and ARGs can (1) affect the production and quality of aquatic products; (2) influence the development and reproduction of aquatic organisms; and (3) accelerate the spread of resistant bacteria. How to eliminate microplastics and ARGs and block their transmission has become a worldwide problem. Actually, further research is required to understand the scale and scope of these effects.202337840081
642170.9997A critical review of process parameters influencing the fate of antibiotic resistance genes in the anaerobic digestion of organic waste. The overuse and inappropriate disposal of antibiotics raised severe public health risks worldwide. Specifically, the incomplete antibiotics metabolism in human and animal bodies contributes to the significant release of antibiotics into the natural ecosystems and the proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria carrying antibiotic-resistant genes. Moreover, the organic feedstocks used for anaerobic digestion are often highly-rich in residual antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant genes. Hence, understanding their fate during anaerobic digestion has become a significant research focus recently. Previous studies demonstrated that various process parameters could considerably influence the propagation of the antibiotic-resistant genes during anaerobic digestion and their transmission via land application of digestate. This review article scrutinizes the influences of process parameters on antibiotic-resistant genes propagation in anaerobic digestion and the inherent fundamentals behind their effects. Based on the literature review, critical research gaps and challenges are summarized to guide the prospects for future studies.202235439559
641380.9997Interactions of microplastics and antibiotic resistance genes and their effects on the aquaculture environments. Microplastics (MPs) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have become the increasing attention and global research hotpots due to their unique ecological and environmental effects. As susceptible locations for MPs and ARGs, aquaculture environments play an important role in their enrichment and transformation. In this review, we focused on the MPs, ARGs, and the effects of their interactions on the aquaculture environments. The facts that antibiotics have been widely applied in different kinds of agricultural productions (e.g., aquaculture) and that most of antibiotics enter the water environment with rainfall and residual in the aquaculture environment have been resulting in the emergence of antibiotic resistance bacteria (ARB). Moreover, the water MPs are effective carriers of the environmental microbes and ARB, making them likely to be continuously imported into the aquaculture environments. As a result, the formation of the compound pollutions may also enter the aquatic organisms through the food chains and eventually enter the human body after a long-term enrichment. Furthermore, the compound pollutions result in the joint toxic effects on the human health and the ecological environment. In summary, this review aims to emphasize the ecological effects and the potential hazards on the aquaculture environments where interactions between MPs and ARGs results, and calls for to reduce the use of the plastic products and the antibiotics in the aquaculture environments.202133265004
749790.9997Microplastic biofilms promote the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in estuarine environments. As emerging pollutants, microplastics can aggregate microorganisms on their surfaces and form biofilms, enriching antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Consequently, microplastic biofilms have become a focal point of research. Horizontal gene transfer is one of the primary mechanisms by which bacteria acquire antibiotic resistance, with much of the research focusing on suspended bacteria. However, microplastic biofilms, as hotspots for horizontal gene transfer, also merit significant investigation. This study primarily explored and compared the frequency of ARG conjugative transfer between suspended bacteria and microplastic biofilms. The results demonstrated that, compared to suspended bacteria, microplastic biofilms enhanced the frequency of ARG conjugative transfer by 7.2-19.6 times. Among them, biofilms on polyethylene microplastics showed the strongest promotion of conjugation. After the formation of microplastic biofilms, there was a significant increase in bacterial density within the biofilms, which raised the collision frequency of donor and recipient bacteria. Then microplastic biofilms facilitated the gene expression levels of outer membrane proteins, enhanced bacterial gene transfer capabilities, promoted the synthesis of conjugative pili, accelerated the formation of conjugative pairing systems, and elevated the expression levels of genes related to DNA replication and transfer systems, thereby enhancing the conjugative transfer of ARGs within microplastic biofilms. Among different types of microplastic biofilms, polyethylene biofilms exhibited the highest bacterial density, thus showing the highest frequency of ARG conjugation. This study highlights the risks associated with ARG conjugative transfer following the formation of microplastic biofilms and provides insights into the risks of microplastic and antibiotic resistance propagation in estuarine environments.202439368156
6429100.9997Selective enrichment of bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes in microplastic biofilms and their potential hazards in coral reef ecosystems. Microplastics become hotspots for bacteria to trigger a series of ecological effects, but few studies have focused on the potential impacts of microplastic biofilms in coral reef ecosystems. Here, we measured the bacterial communities and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the seawater and microplastic biofilms. Results showed that microbial biofilms were formed on the surface of microplastics. The alpha diversity of the bacterial community in the microplastic biofilms was lower than that in the seawater, and the bacterial communities were distinct between the two. Further analysis revealed that several bacteria in the microplastic biofilms carried ARGs, and the proportion of which was correlated to the concentration of antibiotics in the seawater. Specifically, Vibrio was positively correlated to sul1 in the microplastic biofilms under higher concentrations of sulfonamides. Pathway analysis reflected significant overrepresentation of human disease related pathways in the bacterial community of microplastic biofilms. These results suggest that the microplastic biofilms could selectively enrich bacteria from the reef environments, causing the development of ARGs under antibiotic driving. This may pose a serious threat to coral reef ecosystems and human health. Our study provides new insights into the ecological impacts of microplastic biofilms in coral reef ecosystems.202438281603
6422110.9997Is the application of organic fertilizers becoming an undeniable source of microplastics and resistance genes in agricultural systems? The application of organic fertilizers is becoming an undeniable source of microplastics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in agricultural soils. The complex microbial activity further transfers resistance genes and their host bacteria to agricultural products and throughout the entire food chain. Therefore, the current main focus is on reducing the abundance of microplastics and ARGs in organic fertilizers at the source, as well as managing microplastics and ARGs in soil. The control of microplastic abundance in organic fertilizers is currently only achieved through pre-composting selection and other methods. However, there are still many shortcomings in the research on the distribution characteristics, propagation and diffusion mechanisms, and control technologies of ARGs, and some key scientific issues still need to be urgently addressed. The high-temperature composting of organic waste can effectively reduce the abundance of ARGs in organic fertilizers to a certain extent. However, it is also important to consider the spread of ARGs in residual antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB). This article systematically explores the pathways and interactions of microplastics and resistance genes entering agricultural soils through the application of organic fertilizers. The removal of microplastics and ARGs from organic fertilizers was discussed in detail. Based on the limitations of existing research, further investigation in this area is expected to provide valuable insights for the development and practical implementation of technologies aimed at reducing soil microplastics and resistance genes.202438142997
6406120.9997The Environmental Lifecycle of Antibiotics and Resistance Genes: Transmission Mechanisms, Challenges, and Control Strategies. Antibiotics are widely used in modern medicine. However, as global antibiotic consumption rises, environmental contamination with antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) is becoming a serious concern. The impact of antibiotic use on human health is now under scrutiny, particularly regarding the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in the environment. This has heightened interest in technologies for treating ARGs, highlighting the need for effective solutions. This review traces the life cycle of ARB and ARGs driven by human activity, revealing pathways from antibiotic use to human infection. We address the mechanisms enabling resistance in ARB during this process. Beyond intrinsic resistance, the primary cause of ARB resistance is the horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of ARGs. These genes exploit mobile genetic elements (MGEs) to spread via conjugation, transformation, transduction, and outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). Currently, biological wastewater treatment is the primary pollution control method due to its cost-effectiveness. However, these biological processes can promote ARG propagation, significantly amplifying the environmental threat posed by antibiotics. This review also summarizes key mechanisms in the biological treatment of antibiotics and evaluates risks associated with major ARB/ARG removal processes. Our aim is to enhance understanding of ARB risks, their pathways and mechanisms in biotreatment, and potential biomedical applications for pollution control.202541011444
6397130.9997Microplastics and antibiotic resistance genes as rising threats: Their interaction represents an urgent environmental concern. Microplastics (MPs) have been reported to be emerging contaminant of different environmental niches like air, soil, and water. When exposed to these environments, MPs interact with already existing antibiotics to create combined pollution that can harm organisms. MPs have garnered significant attention in academic circles due to their ability to adsorb antibiotics. This review article explores different dimensions of MPs, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and the interplay between MPs, antibiotics, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), emphasizing their interconnection with soil and water pollution. It also summarizes the mechanisms behind the interaction between antibiotics and MPs, detailing various physical and chemical interactions. Additionally, it outlines the pathways through which MPs and ARGs complexes spread, offering insights for future research and solutions to tackle compound pollution. The article concludes by providing targeted strategies to mitigate the environmental and public health risks posed by MP-associated ARG transmission, highlighting the need for integrated pollution control, advanced monitoring techniques, and stricter regulatory policies.202540756460
6419140.9997Can microplastics and disinfectant resistance genes pose conceivable threats to water disinfection process? Microplastic pollution in the environment has aroused widespread concerns, however, the potential environmental risks caused by excessive use of disinfectants are still unknown. Disinfectants with doses below the threshold can enhance the communication of resistance genes in pathogenic microorganisms, promoting the development and spread of antimicrobial activity. Problematically, the intensification of microplastic pollution and the increase of disinfectant consumption will become a key driving force for the growth of disinfectant resistance bacteria (DRB) and disinfectant resistance genes (DRGs) in the environment. Disinfection plays a crucial role in ensuring water safety, however, the presence of microplastics and DRGs seriously disturb the water disinfection process. Microplastics can reduce the concentration of disinfectant in the local environment around microorganisms and improve their tolerance. Microorganisms can improve their resistance to disinfectants or generate resistance genes via phenotypic adaptation, gene mutations, and horizontal gene transfer. However, very limited information is available on the impact of DRB and DRGs on disinfection process. In this paper, the contribution of microplastics to the migration and transmission of DRGs was analyzed. The challenges posed by the presence of microplastics and DRGs on conventional disinfection were thoroughly discussed. The knowledge gaps faced by relevant current research and further research priorities have been proposed in order to provide a scientific basis in the future.202337730038
6401150.9997Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in landfills: A review. Landfill are important reservoirs of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). They harbor diverse contaminants, such as heavy metals and persistent organic chemicals, complex microbial consortia, and anaerobic degradation processes, which facilitate the occurrence, development, and transfer of ARGs and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB). The main concern is that antibiotics and developed ARGs and ARB may transfer to the local environment via leachate and landfill leakage. In this paper, we provide an overview of established studies on antibiotics and ARGs in landfills, summarize the origins and distribution of antibiotics and ARGs, discuss the linkages among various antibiotics, ARGs, and bacterial communities as well as the influencing factors of ARGs, and evaluate the current treatment processes of antibiotics and ARGs. Finally, future research is proposed to fill the current knowledge gaps, which include mechanisms for the development and transmission of antibiotic resistance, as well as efficient treatment approaches for antibiotic resistance.202234597560
9642160.9997Towards the fate of antibiotics and the development of related resistance genes in stream biofilms. Antibiotics are ubiquitously found in natural surface waters and cause great harm to aquatic organisms. Stream biofilm is a complex and active community composed of algae, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, which mainly adheres to solid substances such as rocks and sediments. The durability and diverse structural and metabolic characteristics of biofilms make them a representative of microbial life in aquatic micrecosystems and can reflect major ecosystem processes. Microorganisms and extracellular polymeric substances in biofilms can adsorb and actively accumulate antibiotics. Therefore, biofilms are excellent biological indicators for detecting antibiotic in polluted aquatic environments, but the biotransformation potential of stream biofilms for antibiotics has not been fully explored in the aquatic environment. The characteristics of stream biofilm, such as high abundance and activity of bacterial community, wide contact area with pollutants, etc., which increases the opportunity of biotransformation of antibiotics in biofilm and contribute to bioremediation to improve ecosystem health. Recent studies have demonstrated that both exposure to high and sub-minimum inhibitory concentrations of antibiotics may drive the development of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in natural stream biofilms, which are susceptible to the effects of antibiotic residues, microbial communities and mobile genetic elements, etc. On the basis of peer-reviewed papers, this review explores the distribution behavior of antibiotics in stream biofilms and the contribution of biofilms to the acquisition and spread of antibiotic resistance. Considering that antibiotics and ARGs alter the structure and ecological functions of natural microbial communities and pose a threat to river organisms and human health, our research findings provide comprehensive insights into the migration, transformation, and bioavailability of antibiotics in biofilms.202337454845
6409170.9997Bacterial perspectives on the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in domestic wastewater bio-treatment systems: beneficiary to victim. Domestic wastes, ranging from sewage and sludge to municipal solid waste, are usually treated in bioprocessing systems. These systems are regarded as main conduits for the elevated levels of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) observed in the environment. This paper mainly reviews recent studies on the occurrence and dynamics of ARGs in wastewater bio-treatment systems and discusses the ins and outs of ARG dissemination from the perspective of the microbial community. Our analysis shows that concentration of antibiotics through adsorption to microbial aggregates triggers the bacteria to acquire ARGs, which can be facilitated by the presence of mobile genetic elements. Notably, the acquisition and flow of ARGs during the rapid dissemination process is directed towards and for the best interests of the microbial community as a whole, and is influenced by surrounding nutrient levels, toxicant types, and sensitivities of the species in the prevailing antibiotic-stressed conditions. Furthermore, our review argues that predation of ARG-carrying bacteria by bacteriophages does periodically enhance the accessibility of ARGs to bacteria, which indirectly facilitates the recruitment of ARGs into environmental microbial communities.201829198067
6398180.9997The interplay between antimicrobial resistance, heavy metal pollution, and the role of microplastics. Environmental pollution with heavy metals (HMs) and microplastics (MPs) could enhance the global health challenge antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Herein, we explore the complicated mechanics of how HMs, MPs, and AMR are interlinked within microbial ecosystems, as well as the co-selection and cross-resistance mechanisms. Unlike antibiotics, HMs have influenced microbial evolution for billions of years, promoting resistance mechanisms that predate antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). At the same time, this conundrum is further complicated by the pervasive spread of MPs in the aquatic and terrestrial environments, acting as substrates for bacterial pathogenic biofilms and accelerates the horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of ARGs and heavy metal resistance genes (MRGs). This review highlights that HMs such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni) have persistently selected for resistance traits through efflux systems and genetic co-regulation. Together, these interactions are amplified by MPs that create genetic exchange hotspots due to biofilm formation. These dynamics are modulated by organic matter, which serves both as a nutrient source and a mediator of HM bioavailability, directly influencing ARG abundance. Soil and water ecosystems, including riverine systems and landfill leachate, are reservoirs for ARGs and ARG-MRG combinations, with notable contributions originating from anthropogenic activities. This review also emphasizes the urgent need for integrated environmental and public health strategies to mitigate pollutant-driven AMR. This work seeks to approach HMs and MPs as synergistic drivers of AMR such that both HMs and MPs are upstream (causes) levers, a foundation from which future research on sustainable environmental management practices and health policy (One Health Approach), aimed at curbing the spread of resistance determinants can proceed.202540092036
6414190.9997Microplastic biofilms in water treatment systems: Fate and risks of pathogenic bacteria, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and antibiotic resistance genes. Microplastics (MPs) biofilms in drinking water and wastewater treatment plants (DWTPs and WWTPs) have gained increasing attention due to their potential to come into close contact with humans. This review examines the fate of pathogenic bacteria, antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in MP biofilms and their impacts on operations in DWTPs and WWTPs, as well as the associated microbial risks for ecology and human health. The literature shows that pathogenic bacteria, ARBs, and ARGs with high resistance can persist on MP surfaces and may escape treatment plants, contaminating drinking and receiving water. Nine potential pathogens, ARB, and ARGs can be retained in DWTPs and sixteen in WWTPs. While MP biofilms can improve the removal of MPs themselves, as well as the associated heavy metals and antibiotic compounds, they can also induce biofouling, hinder the effectiveness of chlorination and ozonation, and cause the formation of disinfection by-products. Furthermore, the operation-resistant pathogenic bacteria, ARB, and ARGs on MPs may have adverse impacts on receiving ecosystems, as well as human health, including a range of human diseases, from skin infections to pneumonia and meningitis. Given the significant implications of MP biofilms for aquatic ecosystems and human health, further research is necessary on the disinfection resistance of microbial populations in MP biofilm. This study provides valuable insights into the comprehensive understanding of the changes of MP biofilms in water and wastewater treatment systems as well as their impacts on ecology and human health.202337268132